Do Women-Owned SMEs Export Differently? State-Level Evidence from India
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66635/v7zp1r16Keywords:
SME, Women-owned enterprises, Gender, SHGs, EnterprisesAbstract
Fostering a dynamic and competitive small and medium enterprise (SME) sector remains a critical policy priority in both developed and developing economies. Despite notable progress in driving economic growth and employment generation, India continues to lag in the formulation of comprehensive and gender-neutral SME policies. This study emphasizes that SMEs, irrespective of the gender of ownership, encounter a similar range of constraints, including limited access to markets, low productivity, inadequate availability of skilled and experienced labor, weak innovation capacity, and complex as well as relatively costly registration procedures. After controlling for firm-level and region-specific variables, the study advances the following hypotheses concerning the subnational distribution of SME exports and gender participation: (i) the proportion of women-owned SMEs across Indian states is positively associated with inter-state variations in SME exports, and (ii) the proportion of men-owned SMEs is likewise positively associated with such variations. The analysis aims to examine whether SME export performance across Indian states exhibits a statistically significant relationship with the gender composition of ownership. The empirical findings, however, reveal no significant association between the shares of women-owned or men-owned SMEs and export performance, indicating that gender does not constitute a determining factor in explaining subnational variations in SME export activity. Moreover, per capita Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) is incorporated as a regional demand-specific variable and is found to exert a positive and statistically significant influence on both per capita SME exports and export intensity. This suggests that SMEs located in economically dynamic regions benefit from economies of scale, thereby enhancing their export competitiveness.
References
1.Adler, N. J. (2004), ‘Women in International Entrepreneurship’, In Dana, L.P. (ed.), Handbook of research on international entrepreneurship (pp. 30–40), UK: Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
2.Alam, I., Thakur, N., Hameed, H., Ciddikie, M. D., Wiquar, R., & Singh, R. (2024). From colonization to cooperation: Significance of the India-UK free trade agreement. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, 6(10), 2024190-2024190.
3.Alam, I., Anushka, Singhal, S., Sinha, G. K., Hannan, A. (2025). ‘Business Environment of Indian Footwear Industry: A Case Study of Agra Footwear Industry’ Empirical Economics Letters, 24 (Special Issue 3), pages 173-191 ISSN: 1681-8997.
4.Aldrich, H., Reese, P., and Dubini, P. (1989), ‘Women on the verge of a break-through: Networking among entrepreneurs in the United States and in Italy’, Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 1(4), pp. 339–356.
5.Aman, A., Alam, I., Singh, G. J., Ghali, Z., Fatma, R., & Khan, K. (2025). Bridging Markets, Building Alliances: Assessing the India-Australia Economic Cooperation through the Lens of Trade Liberalization and Geoeconomic Strategy. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 15(4), 187.
6.Bird, B., and Brush C. (2002), ‘A Gendered Perspective on Organizational Creation’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(3), pp. 41–65.
7.Bonacich, E. (1973), ‘A theory of middleman minorities,’ American Sociological Review, 38(5), pp. 583- 94.
8.Brush, C.G. (1992), ‘Research on women business owners: Past trends, a new perspective and future directions’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 16(4), pp. 5–30.
9.Buttner, E., and Rosen, B. (1988), ‘Bank loan officers perceptions of the characteristics of men, women and successful entrepreneurs’, Journal of Business Venturing, 3(3), pp. 249-258.
10.Buttner, E.H. (2001), ‘Examining female entrepreneurs’ management style: An application of a relational frame, Journal of Business Ethics, 29(3), pp. 253-269.
11.Chodorow, N (1999), The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender, New York: University of California Press
12.Chotigeat, T., Balsmeier, P.W. and Stanley, T.O. (1991) ‘Fueling asian immigrants’ entrepreneurship: A source of capital’, Journal of Small Business Management, 29 (3), pp. 50–61.
13.Coleman, S. (2000), ‘Access to capital and terms of credit: A Comparison of men- and women-owned small businesses’, Journal of Small Business Management, 38(3), pp. 37–52.
14.Crant, M. (1997), ‘The proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions,’ Journal of Small Business Management, 34(3), pp. 42–49.
15.England, P., George F., Barbara K., and Thomas D. (1988), ‘Explaining occupational sex segregation and wages: Findings from a model with fixed effects,’ American Sociological Review, 53 (4), pp. 544-558.
16.Fascri, M., and Valdez, J. (1998), ‘A performance contrast of male- and female-owned small accounting practices,’ Journal of Small Business Management, 36(3), pp. 1–7.
17.Fay, M., and Williams, L. (1993), ‘Gender bias and the availability of business loans’, Journal of Business Venturing, 8(4), pp. 363–74.
18.Feagin, F. (1987) ‘Changing black Americans to fit a racist system?’, Journal of Social Issues, 43(1), pp. 85–89.
19.Fletcher, J. (1998), ‘Relational practice: A feminist reconstruction of work’, Journal of Management Inquiry, 7(2), pp. 163–186.
20.Franchi, M. (1992), Donne imprenditrici: leregole del gioco, Milan: Franco Angeli.
21.Gherardi, S. (1995), Gender, symbolism and organizational cultures, London: Sage.
22.Gilligan, C. (1982), In a different voice, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
23.Gordon, L. (1976), Woman’s body, woman’s right: Birth control in America, New York: Grossman.
24.Grondin, D., and Grondin, C. (2005), ‘The export orientation of Canadian female entrepreneurs in New Brunswick’, Women Management Review, 11 (2), pp. 84-107
25.Grondin, D., and Schaefer, N. (1995), ‘Differences in the export activities of female and male-owned SME enterprises’, Women in Management Review, 10(8), pp. 4–10.
26.Hannan, A., Raj, S., Kumari, V., Fatma, R., & Alam, I. (2025). Driving industrial growth through MSMEs: Towards an India’s vision of a $5 trillion economy. The International Tax Journal, 52(5), 1660–1670.
27.Heilbrunn, S, (2004), ‘Impact of gender on difficulties faced by entrepreneurs, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 5(3), pp. 159–65.
28.Husain, T. (2019). Small and Medium Enterprises Export by Indian Regions: Uncovering the Role of Spatial Factors. Review of Market Integration, 11(1-2), 7-29.
29.Husain, T. (2016). Spatial Composition of Indian Small and Medium Enterprises' Export. Journal of International Economics, 7(2), 70.
30.IFC (2014), retrieved from https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/a17915804336f2c29b1dff384c61d9f7/Womenownedbusiness1.pdf?MOD=AJPERES
31.Lerner, G. (1971), The woman in American history, New York: Addison-Wesley Longman Publication Company.
32.Light, I. (1972), Ethnic enterprise in America, USA: University of California Press.
33.Marques, H. (2015), ‘Sectorial differences in export performance: The role of the decision-maker’s gender’, In Perote, J. and Roldan, C.D., (ed.), Advances on international economics (pp. 159-181), United Kingdom: Cambridge Scholars.
34.Mill, J.S. (1970), ‘On the subjection of women’ In Alice S. Rossi (ed.), Essays on Sex Equality (p. 190), Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
35.Miller, J. B. (1976), Toward a new psychology of women, Boston: Beacon Press.
36.Ministry of Finance (2008), Economic Survey 2007/08, New Delhi: Ministry of Finance.
37.Ministry of Finance (2015), Economic Survey 2014/15, New Delhi: Ministry of Finance.
38.Mirchandani, K. (1999), ‘Feminist insight on gendered work: New directions in research on women and entrepreneurship,’ Gender Work & Organization, 6(4), pp. 224–235.
39.Monaci, M. (1998), ‘L’imprenditorialità femminile: tendenze, teorie, interventi’, Internal working paper, ISTUD, April.
40.Noya, A. (2006), Women's entrepreneurship in Romania: First results and policy orientations, Paper presented at 9th CEI Summit Economic Forum, Tirana, Albania.
41.OECD (1998), Women Entrepreneurs in Small and Medium Enterprises, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
42.Orser, B., Riding, A., and Townsend, J. (2004), ‘Exporting as a means of growth for women-owned Canadian SMEs’, Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 17(3), pp. 153-174.
43.Pradhan, J.P., and Das, K. (2016), Manufacturing exports from Indian states determinants and policy imperatives, Springer: New Delhi.
44.Rapoport, R. and Bailyn (1996), Relinking life and work: Toward a better future, A Ford Foundation Report.
45.Reavley, M.A., Lituchy, T., and McClelland, E. (2005), ‘Exporting success: A two country comparison of women entrepreneurs in international trade’, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 2(1), pp. 57-78.
46.Rosener, J.B. (1990), ‘Ways women lead’, Harvard Business Review, 68 (3), pp. 119–125.
47.Watson, J., and Robinson, S. (2003), ‘Adjusting for risk in comparing the performance of male and female controlled SMEs,’ Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6), pp. 773–788.
48.Weiler, S., and Bernasek, A. (2001), ‘Dodging the glass ceiling? networks and the new wave of female entrepreneurs’, The Social Science Journal, 38(1), pp. 85–103.
49.Welch. C.L., Welch, D.E., and Hewedine, L. (2008), ‘Gender and export behaviour: Evidence from women-owned enterprises’, Journal of Business Ethics, 83(1), pp. 113-126.
50.Zinkhan, G. M., and Karande, K. W. (1991), ‘Cultural and gender differences in risk-taking behaviour among American and Spanish decision makers’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 131(5), pp. 741–742.
